As with family history in other areas of the world, the first place to start is with your own family. Try to gather as much information as you can from relatives, old family documents and the like. With luck you will be able to piece together a simple family tree. Concentrate in particular on gathering details of when and where your forebears lived. Older relatives may be able to provide useful clues. The more information you can gather now, the easier your research will be later.

Further tips on Getting Started in Genealogy and Family History are given elsewhere in GENUKI.

The next stage is to address the main sources of information on Scottish forebears.

The key records for family historians are

• Birth, marriage and death certificates
• Census Returns
• Old Parochial Registers (OPRs)

Other records include Marine Registers of Scottish births and deaths (post 1855) and various Army records, including deaths of Scottish soldiers in the two World Wars.

 

Registration of births, marriages and deaths began in Scotland on the 1st January 1855. Scottish certificates generally give more information than their English counterparts e.g. death certificates name the parents of the deceased, and marriage certificates name mothers as well as fathers of the couple.

1855 is usually the cut-off point, although death certificates can extend the tree well before this date. For instance, if someone who was born in 1790 lived until the grand old age of 75, their death certificate (circa 1865) would give two more names to add to the top of the tree, taking things back to a couple born around 1770 or earlier.

Many early Scottish civil registration certificates can be consulted on microfilm in LDS Family History Centres around the world, including the period 1855-1875. The IGI (International Genealogical Index) has good coverage of births and marriages from Scottish civil registration records for the years 1855-1875 and it can therefore be a useful tool for tracing events then. Most LDS microfilms have now been digitised and since September 2017 such records are available online.

GRO and OPR indexes have been online since 6th April 1998, facsimile of documents since 2002. Indexes are available for births or christenings 1553 to 1902 (1915), marriages 1553 to 1927 (1940), and deaths 1855 to 1952 (1965) (these dates advance year by year to make information available for people born up to 100 years ago), and census indexes for 1841-1911. (For further information please see ScotlandsPeople).

 

There has been a census every ten years since 1801 (excluding 1941) but only those after 1841 (with a few earlier exceptions) carry details of named residents. Census returns for 1841-1911 can be consulted at the National Records of Scotland (NRS) in Edinburgh and copies on microfilm may be consulted in LDS Family History Centres around the world. LDS centres also carry microfiche indexes to the 1881 census returns. Computerised indexes for 1841, 1851, 1861, 1871, 1881, 1891, 1901, and 1911 are available at the National Records of Scotland in Edinburgh and are also available through ScotlandsPeople, which provides digitised images of these census returns.

The 3rd edition of Census Records for Scottish Families at Home and Abroad by Gordon Johnson has recently been published by Aberdeen & N.E.Scotland FHS, ISBN 0 947659 74 9, vi, 100pp. The book, which can be purchased from the society directly, includes an outline of census records in many other countries and a directory of census holdings in Scottish libraries and archives, updated to include changes resulting from the 1996 local government reorganisation.

Peter Ruthven-Murray's information leaflet entitled Scottish Census Indexes, 1841-1871 is published by and available from the Scottish Association of Family History Societies.

To search in the census, you need to know where your forebears were living at the time of the census. For rural areas the village name is sufficient but in towns, you need to know the street where they lived (larger towns have street indexes which let you find a particular street quickly).

 

The third main source of records in the National Records of Scotland are those of the Church of Scotland prior to 1855. These consist of baptisms, marriages and burials recorded in Church of Scotland parishes all over Scotland. Unfortunately not every birth, marriage or death was recorded in these records. Often for example baptisms had to be paid for which meant that many children were not baptised. Other reasons can include the minister or clerk forgetting to record an event; registers being incomplete or damaged for periods; families falling out with the ministers; or people being members of other religious denominations (e.g. Roman Catholics, Free Church, Episcopalians etc.)

To trace an individual in the OPRs, it helps to have some idea of where that person lived. census returns can be very useful in identifying birthplaces of those alive after 1841. In the past, it was almost impossible to locate a baptism or marriage without a very good idea of where it occurred. This was because all possible parish records had to be checked which could be a long and laborious process. Now, fortunately, baptisms and marriages in the OPRs can be searched using a computerised index, either on a county basis or searching over the whole country. The index gives the reference number for the relevant microfilm roll together with the frame number (page), allowing you to go straight to the record you are interested in.

The information contained in the OPRs can vary immensely. For the birth of a child you will usually be given the names of both parents (including maiden name of mother) and often an address and names of witnesses (often relatives). A marriage will sometimes name relatives of the couple. Burial registers usually provide the least information, if they exist at all for the period you need.

Further information on accessing these and other church records can be found in the Scotland Church Records page.

More information on the full range of records available and how to access them can be found among the National Records of Scotland web pages.

National Records of Scotland (General Register Office for Scotland)

The National Records of Scotland, formed on 1 April 2011 following the merger of the General Register Office for Scotland (GROS) and the National Archives of Scotland (NAS), is now the first port of call for most people tracing their Scottish ancestry, housing a wealth of information and archive material, much of which is of direct interest to family historians. Although members of staff can answer specific queries (e.g. the will of someone whose approximate death date and residence are known), they are unable to carry out lengthy research. If you are unable to carry out your research in person, staff will happily send a list of professional researchers for you to choose from.

If you can come to Edinburgh then you can consult the records in person at the ScotlandsPeople Centre and obtain photocopies if required. However, you should write before your visit to find where the records can be consulted. Some records are stored elsewhere and you may need to give staff a few days notice before such records can be consulted in a search room. If in doubt, write to be on the safe side.

For people born over 100 years ago, there is access online at ScotlandsPeople. Initial searches are free, detail of records is available for a fee.

For people born within the last 100 years, you can write to the National Records of Scotland to ask them to search the records on your behalf, or if your search will be a lengthy one, they may recommend that you hire a professional searcher to carry out the work.

However, if you are able to, the best way to search the records is in person. For a daily fee you have unlimited access to the indexes (mostly computerised) and self-service instant access to the records. You can make notes from the records at no extra cost, or if you require a photocopy or extract, can order this for a moderate fee. In a day you can consult a great many records. Because the certificates are available on a self-service basis, research in them can proceed very quickly, often back 4 or more generations in a single day (and in several branches of the tree).

Some of the records of interest to family historians include

• Wills and testaments, both modern and old (back to 1500s). Since 1900 many people have left wills or testaments. Prior to then, only the wealthy or landed tended to leave a record. The combined index to Scottish wills and testaments from 1500-1875 (soon to be extended to 1901) - currently comprising over 350,000 names, is now searchable free online at ScotlandsPeople. Digital images of the related documents can be purchased.
• Non-conformist church records (Catholic, Free Church, etc.)
• Kirk Session records of the Established Church of Scotland. If you have an illegitimate ancestor, these records might help you trace the name of the father if not yet known (Kirk Sessions were notoriously conscientious in discovering the paternity of such children).
• Legal and Court records, many accessed through card indexes
• Sasine records, recording changes in ownership of land
• Estate records, detailing tenants etc.
• Criminal records
• Registers of Deeds e.g. marriage contracts, bonds etc.
• Services of Heirs, recording the inheritance of land by heirs
• Gifts and Deposits, a wide variety of archive material gifted to the SRO
• Maps and Plans
• Valuation Rolls (mostly post 1855), detailing the value of land, together with details of proprietors and occupiers
• Burgh Records, including lists of Burgesses
• Taxes

A large number of indexes to the above records have been published and can be consulted either at the National Records of Scotland, or in large libraries in Scotland. Many of these indexes will also be available worldwide through LDS Family History Centres. Published material includes indexes to:

• Testaments & Inventories (Wills) prior to 1800
• Registers of Sasines for many counties (mostly prior to 1800)
• Gifts and Deposits
• Registers of Deeds between 1661 and 1700
• Maps and Plans
• Services of Heirs prior to circa 1860
• Burgesses in some burghs

See the Family History pages at the NRS.

The National Records of Scotland is a partner in the ScotlandsPlaces project, which makes a wide range of local history sources available online.

Two publications describing records at the National Records of Scotland are

• Tracing Your Scottish Ancestors: a guide to ancestry research in the Scottish Record Office, Published Edinburgh 1990, Revised Edition 1997 (HMSO), Cecil Sinclair, ISBN 0-11-495865-3
• Tracing Scottish local history: a guide to local history research in the Scottish Record Office, Published Edinburgh 1994 (HMSO), Cecil Sinclair

 

For more information contact

National Records of Scotland 
HM General Register House 
Edinburgh EH1 3YY

 

There are a number of other sources which may prove helpful.

• Local archives and libraries around Scotland
• National and local newspapers - for example to find out about local events, or search for birth, marriage, or death notices of relatives, or hunt for obituaries.
• Scottish family history societies

Further information on these and other sources can be found in the relevant sections of the Scotland page in GENUKI. Follow links to county pages from there for county-specific information.

• In Scotland, a useful starting point is the Family History section at The National Records of Scotland.
• There is an online introductory tutorial on Scottish genealogy.
• Details of upcoming United Kingdom and Ireland Genealogical Events (GENEVA).
• Useful online sites of genealogy information include:
  • The Scottish portion of Cyndi's List of Genealogy Sites.
  • Researchers may be interested in Scotland's People.
  • Free Surname Search - links to a great variety of different indexes which can be searched at no charge. Some provide a different interface to databases, e.g. the IGI, some are indexes for particular localities, e.g. a census index for one place.

  The following books are all useful guides to Scottish genealogical research: [Note that other editions of some of these books, for instance in the USA and Canada, have been published]

  • Discover Your Scottish Ancestry - Internet and Traditional Resources by Graham S Holton & Jack Winch - Edinburgh University Press 2003 I.S.B.N. 0 7846 1864 3.
  • A rather old publication but still of great value:- Sources for Scottish Genealogy and Family History by D.J.Steel, published 1970 by Phillimore & Co. Ltd. for the Society of Genealogists (National Index of Parish Registers" volume XII).
  • My ain folk by Graham S. Holton and Jack Winch, published by Tuckwell Press, East Linton (1997, 150 pages) with ISBN 1 86232 024 1. This is subtitled "an easy guide to Scottish family history" and includes information on using the Internet to help with your research.
  • Tracing your Scottish Ancestry by Kathleen B. Cory, published by Polygon, Edinburgh (1996, 2nd edition) with ISBN 0-7486-6215-4.
  • In Search of Scottish Ancestry by Gerald Hamilton-Edwards, published by Phillimore, Chichester (1983).
  • Scottish Roots by Alwyn James, published by the Saltire Society, Edinburgh (1995, 159 pages) with ISBN 0-85411-066-6
  • Tracing Your Scottish Ancestors (a guide to ancestry research in the Scottish Record Office) by Cecil Sinclair, published by the Scottish Record Office (now renamed the National Records of Scotland), Edinburgh: HMSO,1997 (revised edition). ISBN 0-11-495865-3.
  • Tracing Scottish Ancestors by Rosemary Bigwood, published by Harper Collins (in Collins Pocket Reference series) in 1999, ISBN 0004723287 (288 pages).
  • Your Scottish Ancestry: A Guide for North Americans by Sherry Irvine, published by Ancestry in 1997 ISBN 0916489655 (267 pages).
  • Gathering the Clans - Tracing Scottish Ancestry on the Internet by Alan Stewart, published by Phillimore in 2004, ISBN 1-86077-291-9.

  For information on previously published family histories (particularly landed families), see the following publications:

  • Scottish Family Histories by Margaret Stewart.
  • Scottish Family Histories by Joan P S Ferguson.

  The Court of the Lord Lyon, King of Arms has its own website.

The Complete Guide to British Genealogy and Family History

by M.D. Herber

Published by: Sutton Publishing, in association with the Society of Genealogists (1997) xiv, 674p. ISBN 0-7509-148-1.

CONTENTS: An Introduction to Genealogical Research; Personal Collections and Memorabilia; Organisation of Your Research Material; General Problems Encountered by Researchers; Civil Registration of Births, Marriages and Deaths; Census Returns; Parish Registers; Churchyards and Cemeteries; Directories; Combining Sources of Information; Archives, Libraries and Family History Societies; Wills and Administrations; Catholic, Non-Conformist and Jewish Records; Marriage and Divorce; Maps, Land Registration and Property Records; Local and Social History; Newspapers and Elections; Parish and Town Records; Records of the Army, Royal Marines and Royal Air Force; Records of Shipping and Seamen; Records of Trades, Professions and Business; Oaths, Taxation and Insurance Records; Records of the Civil and Ecclesiastical Courts; Education; Peerages, the Gentry, Famous People and Heraldry; Further Property Records; Tracing Migrants and Living Relatives; Scotland, Wales, Ireland, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands; Immigration, Emigration and Investigation Abroad.
APPENDICES: Codes for Areas and Volumes in the GRO Indexes; Indexes to Other GRO Records; Chapman County Codes; Seize Quartiers of Bessie Maude Symes; Extracts from the Bulleid and Keates Family Trees; Public Record Office Information Leaflets; County Record Offices and Other Archives; Commencement Dates of the Reigns of English and British Monarchs; Wills and Administrations in the Prerogative Court of Canterbury: A Summary of Finding Aids; Records of the Courts of Chancery: A Summary of Finding Aids.

From the dust jacket:

"This unique book sets out to guide the genealogist and family historian through the substantial British records - perhaps the richest genealogical material in the world - with a detailed view of the archives and the published sources available. Each type of record, from personal recollections, photographs, and other memorabilia to civil, legal and religious records, newspapers and directories, is analysed and the researcher is guided to the many detailed finding aids and indexes. Ancestral Trails will be equally useful to the beginner and to those who have started the search for their roots. . . . For more experienced researchers, the book will be a mine of information on the records that are harder to find and use, such as legal and property records. Research in Scotland, Wales, Ireland, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands is also covered, as are the latest developments in information technology applications on CD and through the Internet. No other publication gives such comprehensive and up-to-date guidance on tracing British ancestry and researching family history. Illustrated throughout with more than ninety examples of the major types of records, and with detailed lists of further reading."

The above description is in fact well-justified, including the implied comparisons with other recent books - the book really is amazingly comprehensive, though a hesitant beginner, not yet sure how committed he or she is to their new hobby, might prefer something smaller (and cheaper - the UK edition costs 30 pounds), and more prettified with picturesque old photographic portraits and historic views. (The book in fact contains a large number of well-chosen illustrations, but almost all of them are of documents and the like.)

One of the major strengths of the book is the very detailed yet clear and readable way in which the author illustrates the multifarious types of information that exist, and how they can be found and interpreted, and related to other information. He does this, in the main, using records relating to his own ancestors. As a result there are a large number of examples relating to London, Devon and Bedfordshire - a nice bonus for readers who have interests in these areas - though other areas of England and Wales are by no means neglected. (There is also one very good chapter on other parts of the British Isles.)

It is evident that the author is very accustomed to doing his research at the Library of the Society of Genealogists and the Public Record Office, and also in various County Record Offices in England. However he does make a good number of references to major resources that are available worldwide through the resources of the LDS (Mormon) network of Family History Centres, and to ones that are available via the Internet - though one has the impression that he is not personally very familiar with these sources of information. Similarly, he does not attempt to disguise that he himself makes only limited use of a computer - but even on these topics, leave alone the many on which he is evidently extremely expert, he provides highly sensible advice backed up by a very large number of well- chosen references to other books and journal articles. (The very impressive bibliography comprises nearly a thousand items.)

In summary, anyone who has progressed beyond what might be termed mere "name-spotting", in other words with a serious interest in British genealogy, is strongly advised to obtain and study this book carefully. This is particularly the case if their interest encompasses not just genealogy but also family history, i.e. if they are (to quote from the Foreword by John Titford) "keen to move beyond the constraints of mere pedigree-making and to arrive at an understanding of their ancestors within the broader contexts of time and place". Brian.Randell@newcastle.ac.uk

The Complete Guide to British Genealogy and Family History (2nd. ed.)

by M.D. Herber

Published by: Sutton Publishing, in association with the Society of Genealogists (2005) xxi, 873 pp. ISBN 0-7509-4198-7.

This second edition of the award-winning original is indeed, as claimed on the cover, "fully updated and revised". The set of chapters remains unchanged, but the total number of pages has increased by over two hundred, due to all the additional material the author has incorporated, mainly in order to deal with new sources of information, especially online information, that has become available since the first edition was published.

Almost all of the thirty chapters have been significantly expanded, in particular those on: Census Records; Parish Registers; Archives, Libraries and Family History Societies; Wills and Administrations; Records of the Army, Royal Marines and Royal Air Force; Records of Shipping and Seamen; Records of Trades, Professions and Business; Peerages, the Gentry, Famous People and Heraldry; Further Property Records; Scotland, Wales, Ireland, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands; and Immigration, Emigration and Investigation Abroad.

For example, the chapter on Parish Records has ten more pages and includes entire new sub-chapters on The British Isles Vital Records Index, The National Burial Index, and the Family History Online Website, as well as lots of additional text about information that is now available on CD-ROM and on the Internet, either free or in pay-per-view sites. As a second example, the 57-page chapter on Records of Shipping and Seamen (which was only 40 pages before) has new sections on Naval Reserves, Servicewomen, Casualties and Honours, Naval Medals, Pensions for Ratings, Courts Martial, Registers of Seamen 1913-41, Registers of Seamen 1942-72, and War Service of Merchant Seamen.

There is one additional Appendix, Web Sites for Family Historians, which though it carefully provides details of more extensive such listings, itself lists almost two hundred carefully-selected web-sites. The Bibliography, which originally listed 978 books now contains no fewer than 1342 entries.

With all the effort that Mark Herber has put into updating and extending this, the most important single book on UK genealogy and family history, it is not surprising that the illustrative summary that he provided in the first edition, in the chapter Combining Sources of Information, of the results of his own researches into the lives of several of his ancestors has not been updated for the second edition. Indeed, it would not be at all surprising to learn that he has had no time at all for his own research in recent years, but in fact, from the illustrations he gives elsewhere of information from newly-available resources, in particular online resources, e.g. concerning census records, he has evidently found at least some time for his own family history.

To sum up, the review of the first edition described it as "amazingly comprehensive" - nevertheless this new edition is a significant improvement, and well worthy of space on every serious researcher's bookshelf. Brian.Randell@newcastle.ac.uk

Blogs & Newsletters

There are many blogs and newsletters devoted to genealogy, and these can help you keep up to date with new developments and forthcoming events. Most have the option of a regular email containing either a list of newly posted topics or the actual text of new postings. Some allow for comment or discussion of indivudal postings.

Independent

These blogs are maintained by individual established family historians, providing news and opinions on developments in the world of genealogy.

• Eastman's Online Genealogy Newsletter

  Dick Eastman's newsletter has been going for over 20 years, with a focus on online and technological developments. Although Dick is based in the US, there is plenty of material relevant to the British Isles and most postings are in any case of general genealogical interest  A paid subscription gives access to additional, more in-depth postings.

• Chris Paton's Scottish Genes

  An essential source of news for those with Scottish roots, but with plenty of coverage of events in the Britsh Isles as a whole.

• Claire Santry's Irish Genealogy News

  This is quite simply the best source of news about developments in Irish genealogy, with occasional coverage of Great Britain and North America.

• Dave Annal's Lifelines Research blog.

  Not a source of news, but Dave Annal's expertise as a former Principal Family History Specialist for The National Archives guarantees well-informed explorations of issues relating to genealogical records and research.

• Debbie Kennett's Cruwys News

  A personal genealogy blog, but with frequent coverage of issues and developments in genetic genealogy, on which she is an experienced commentator.

Organizations

Many family history organizations - record offices, family history societies, commercial data services - have a blog for announcing news relating to their activities. The following regularly, or at least frequently, post materal of more general interest.

• FamilySearch

  The topics covered in this blog are quite disparate and naturally not specifically targetted at British and Irish interests, but the regular news about additions and changes to the FamilySearch site make it worth visiting.

• Lost Cousins Newsletter

  Unlike most blogs from commercial sites, the main focus of Peter Calver's fortnightly newsletter is not the site itself. Instead each issue carries a dozen or so snippets of recent news and occasional longer pieces. This blog does not have its own home page, but a link from the site's home page takes you to the latest issue.

• Institute of Heraldic and Genealogical Studies

  Although mainly devoted to the Institute's own activities, each issue has a useful list of the latest additions to the main genealogy data services, and there are frequent book reviews.

Finding Other Genealogy Blogs

• Cyndi's List: Blogs for Genealogy
• International Society of Genetic Genealogy Wiki: Genetic genealogy blogs.

 

Introduction

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This page gives details of guides and textbooks on genealogy and family history. Sources for genealogical information on UK and Ireland are here.

What's here

• Research Guides
• Tutorial Articles
• Portals and Online Information Services
• Newsletters, Mailing Lists, etc.
• Glossaries
• Lineage-Linked Databases
• Tracing Living People
• Miscellaneous

 

 

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• Here is a selected set of recommended general textbooks on UK and Ireland genealogy and family history. (Books relating to particular regions and topics will be found listed on other appropriate GENUKI pages under the relevant headings, elsewhere in this information service.)
• The British Isles section of the LDS Family History Research Wiki contains extensive advice, and much detailed research guidance, concerning UK & Ireland genealogy. 
• The Genealogist's Internet - based on the 5th edition (originally published in 2012) of Peter Christian's best-selling book, a copy that is freely available here under a Creative Commons Licence, so can be downloaded, edited  and re-distributed as long as no charge is made for it, and the original title and authorship are preserved.  
• Lost Cousins' "Tracing Your British Ancestors" - a very useful beginner's guide.
• One very useful concise guide to researching British ancestry at a distance, A-Z of British Genealogical Research, whose text was prepared for the Compuserve Genealogy Forum, has been edited for inclusion here by permission of the author, Dr Ashton Emery. (It is however rather dated.)
• The series of Gibson Guides are a valuable guide to the various different types of genealogical record source.
• The Chapman Record Cameos are another very useful and authoritative set of guides for both beginners and more experienced researchers tracing their roots in England, Scotland, Ireland, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands.
• The Society of Genealogists provide a set of general "Hints & Tips" -
  • Top 10 Tips for Starting Your Family History
  • Genealogy or Family History? What's the diffference?
  • Surname Searching at the SoG and elswehere. What's Been Done Before?
  • Genealogy as a Career
  • Standards and Good Practice in Genealogy (archived copy)
  • Writing Genealogical Reports
  • Employing a Professional Genealogist
  • The right to Arms (members only)
• Understanding Sources, Citations, Documentation And Evaluating Evidence In Genealogy, by Richard A. Pence.
• Is the Answer in your Genes? - an an expanded version of the article by Debbie Kennett first published in Berkshire Family Historian in September 2008.
• Chris Pomery's DNA & Family History pages (archived copy).
• Genetic Genealogy - an annotated bibliography
• Websites for DNA Research and DNA Projects for Genealogy  - from UK BMD.
• Really Useful Sources - "prepared for the benefit of newcomers to family history and to the Manchester and Lancashire FHS"
• If you are researching British or Irish ancestors from beyond the British Isles, you may find GENUKI's Researching from Abroad page useful.

 

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• GENUKI's Getting Started in Genealogy and Family History.
• The large BBC Family History website provides many valuable tutorial articles.
• TNA research guidance: Looking for a Person?.
• Wikipedia article on the use of the old and new style dates, i.e. Julian and Gregorian calendar dates, that are found for example in parish registers.
• David Postle's excellent tutorials on medieval and early-modern palaeography (archived copies).
• English Handwriting 1500-1700 - an online course.
• The National Archives' Palaeography Tutorial (how to read old handwriting)
• The National Archives' Beginners' Latin Tutorial
• The National Archives' Advanced Latin Tutorial
• LDS FamilySearch Research Guidance Noote - Latin Genealogical word List
• Anglican Clergy - "An introduction for those engaged in biographical research", from the Lambeth Palace Library website
• Family History - "An overview of the sources held at Lambeth Palace Library for family history and genealogy".
• Clues From Your Old Photograhs (archived copy), from Your Family Tree Magazine.
• ExploreGenealogy - articles on Family History References and Resources.
• Hints and Tips - provided by the Family History Partnership.

 

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• FindMyPast - Previously known as 1837Online, FindMyPast enables subscribers to perform online searches of "military records, census, migration, occupation directories, and current electoral roll data, as well as the complete birth, marriage and death indexes." (Lost Cousins provides a very useful "Masterclass" - How to get the Most From Findmypast."
• Ancestry.co.uk - a subscription service offering online access to a very large collection of records: census, BMD, probate, etc.
• TheGenealogist - claims to be "The Leading British Genealogy Research Website".
• FreeUKGenealogy: a huge volunteer-run set of free search services - FreeBMD (Civil Registration Births, Marriages and Deaths), FreeCEN (Census Records - 1841 to 1891)  and FreeREG (Parish Registers), which provide access to some 350,000,000 records in total (as of April 2019).
• FHS-Online - "brings together data from Family History Societies across the UK and makes it available to family historians and genealogists researching their family trees", provided by S & N.
• DustyDocs provides a very useful and comprehensive set of links to free genealogical websites , for each UK parish, giving links into transcripts of parish registers, memorial inscriptions, etc., where available, and to maps, church photographs, and more.
• Lost Cousins "offers 100% accurate automatic matching between researchers who share the same ancestors", based on these ancestors' census records. "Registration at LostCousins is free, and so is standard membership, which allows you to enter and edit information about your ancestors and search for cousins."
• The Online Genealogical Index - "Enter the country, county, town and approximate year, and OGI will check its database of over  411,000  [as of 18 Jun 2021] online data sets and list those that hold data for the given town and year." - a free non-profit service.
• There are a large number of listings of the surnames being researched by various Internet users. Details can be found under "Genealogy" on the appropriate GENUKI county pages, and there is also a listing of all the Surname Lists available.
• The Origins Network - a subscription service, that, in cooperation with the Society of Genealogists, provides online access to "comprehensive and exclusive British and Irish record collections dating back to the 13th century, as well as rare and unique photos and books." (Now part of FindMyPast.)
• GenGuide - a free (donations invited) service "information on UK and Irish genealogical sources, topics, finding aids and contacts relevant to family history", with passenger lists, seamen's registers, coroner's inquest records and more.
• Pedigrees of the Peerage and Gentry of Great Britain & Ireland - online copies of Burke’s Peerage, Landed Gentry, Debrett’s, Foster’s, Dod’s, etc., many searchable, provided by UK Genealogy Archives.
• Researchers may be interested in the Irish and United Kingdom GenWeb Project.
• Resources for adopted children and birth parents wanting to contact each other, provided by ukbirth-adoptionregister.com .
• Finding People - list of useful links from Bedfordshire Libraries.
• The Encyclopedia of Genealogy is a "a free-content encyclopedia created by its readers" (i.e. a specialised, and as yet rather modest, equivalent of Wikipedia), which though general in its genealogical scope can be expected to grow to contain more content of particular relevance to UK genealogy.
• Family History UK is "the latest FREE UK family tree, genealogy and ancestry community portal website, connecting ancestors and living relatives all over the UK".
• Lookup UK - "Resource Centre for finding that Lost Friend or Relative in the UK"
• The Original Record - a (subscription) search service based on 2500 "rare and Interesting genealogy sources . . . containing over 10 million entries relating to families in the British isles and colonies".
• Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England (PASE) - "a database which aims to cover all of the recorded inhabitants of England from the late sixth to the end of the eleventh century", provided by Kings Colege London and the University of Cambridge.
• British Family Bibles - "Many bibles contain important genealogical material. However in Britain many of these bibles have been (and still are being) destroyed at an alarming rate, since booksellers can only sell them as bibles - not as genealogy. . . [The purpose] of this site: To transcribe and add to this site the records from British Family Bibles as they become available; To acquire unwanted British family bibles and transcribe their contents - we seek contact with booksellers and other people who happen across these bibles; To offer for sale family bibles as available."
• UKGDL - "genealogical directories and lists on-line for UK family history and genealogy".
• Familypedia - a large general semantic wiki for genealogy, now containing a growing amount of material related to the UK & Ireland.
• Online Parish Clerk schemes - a listing.
• According to the current Wikipedia definition "One-place studies are a branch of family history and/or local history with a focus on the entire population of a single road, village or community, not just a single, geographically dispersed family line"; the Register of One Place Studies provides a listing of OPS schemes in England and elsewhere, as does the Society for One-Place Studies.

 

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• Genes Reunited - "The UK's largest family tree and ancestry website" (subscription)
• Family Search - from the LDS: "the largest collection of free family history, family tree and genealogy records in the world"
• Ancestry OneWorldTree - "OneWorldTree takes family trees submitted by Ancestry members that were "stitched" together with family trees and historical records from other sources. OneWorldTree identified probable name matches between these sources and now displays consolidated results in a worldwide family tree that can help you with your family history research." (subscription)
• WeRelate - "the world's largest genealogy wiki with pages for over 350,000 people" (as of June 2007)

 

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• Genealogy in Time Magazine provides comprehensive monthly compilations of newly-available online resources - these cover numerous countries. Separate cumulative listings, covering from 2008 up to June 2016, are provided for England & Wales, Scotland and Ireland.
• The Lost Cousins Family History website publishes an informative regular free newsletter "full of useful tips and articles".
• Here is a lengthy listing of Facebook pages and groups related to UK and Irish genealogy and history. GENUKI's own Facebook page is here.
• A large number of Discussion Groups exist covering various parts of the country. If your research interests cover one of these areas, then joining the appropriate group is highly recommended.
• Curious Fox - a "village by village contact site for anybody researching family history, genealogy and local history in the UK and Ireland"
• MadAboutGenealogy - a blog by Linda Elliott "Helping UK & USA Researchers With their British Family History" (currently offline).

 

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• Dorothy Stanley's Genealogy Dictionary provides some useful definitions.
• Genealogy Glossary from Genealogy.com.

 

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• The British Library's Tracing Living People guide
• 192.com - UK people and business finder
• The Salvation Army's Family Tracing Service
• School Mates - "find and contact old school friends"
• Adoption Search Reunion - "intended to be the first port of call for anyone thinking about searching for or making contact with birth and adopted relatives"
• Finding People - from Cyndi's List
• National Archives - Change of Name leaflet
• Look4Them - this "website features 6 UK organisations, set up to make it easier for you to find help and advice on finding relatives in the UK and overseas".

 

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• Listing of Online Parish Clerk schemes.
• Online Parish Clerks - an explanatory article by Roy Stockdill.
• Details of upcoming United Kingdom and Ireland Genealogical Events (GENEVA) .
• Some Notes on Medieval Genealogy - a very extensive and informative web-site, with many links.
• Picture dating and analysis service - by Jayne Shrimpton
• The British Records Association "was formed to assist and encourage the preservation of records and also to encourage their use".
• The Foundation for Medieval Genealogy was established in 2001 by a group of British genealogists and historians with a special interest in the medieval period.
• Finding Georgian Ancestors and Tracing Ancestors Using Oaths of Allegiance - by Edward Vallance, who also provides a listing of On-line copies of Protestation Returns.
• Listing of books and articles on record linking (or "family reconstitution")
• The National Archives' currency converter page - for estimating the buying power of old currency.

by Jeremy Gibson and others

A very useful set of guides to the whereabouts of records, published by the Federation of Family History Societies. They are available from the GENfair.

With Pamela Peskett

Record Offices: How to Find Them.
Seventh edition, forthcoming, 1996. 60 pp.
Street maps of over a hundred cities and towns in England and Wales, and Edinburgh in Scotland, showing record offices, car parks, railway and bus stations. English and Welsh historic counties.

With Elizabeth Hampson

Marriage, Census and Other Indexes for Family
Historians, Sixth edition, forthcoming, 1996. 64 pp.
A Guide to indexes, published and unpublished, compiled and maintained mostly by family history societies or individuals. An amazingly useful little book, the best seller of the series.

Census Returns 1841-1891 in Microform:
A Directory to Local Holdings in Great Britain.
Sixth edition, 1994. 56 pp.
There are locally held microfilms of the censuses in libraries and record offices throughout England, Wales and Scotland (also the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands). Opening hours are usually longer and access easier than the central reposi-tories in London and Edinburgh. Now includes 1891 census.

Unpublished Personal Name Indexes in Record Offices
and Libraries. New edition in preparation.
The record offices and reference or local studies libraries of Great Britain have a wide variety of indexes to often unsus-pected categories and sources. Over 600 of these were circulated to compile this Guide, an essential companion to Marriage, Census and Other Indexes.

Local Newspapers, 1750-1920: A Select Location List.
England and Wales; Channel Islands; Isle of Man.
New edition in preparation.
From the mid-18th century the provincial press began to carry news of local events. This indispensable location list describes concisely, by county and local area, what newspapers were published, when they were published and where they can be consulted today.

Quarter Sessions Records for Family Historians.
Fourth edition, 1995. 48 pp.
Not the easiest of sources to use, the records of Quarter Sessions contain a wealth of administrative information on all classes and are invaluable for fleshing out the bones of skeleton pedigrees. Generally but not invariably in county record offices, the survival of the records and provision of finding aids vary widely.

Probate Jurisdictions: Where to Look for Wills.
Fourth edition, 1994. 72 pp.
Wills and their associated records are amongst the most useful and important records for family and local historians. Before 1858 (when centralised civil courts were introduced) there was a wide variety of ecclesiastical courts throughout England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, with over-lapping jurisdictions. This Guide, arranged by pre-1974 counties, provides simply presented information on the courts, their jurisdictions (with maps), periods of coverage, indexes and other finding aids, and present locations of records. Also included are locally held post-1858 records and copies of the printed indexes for all England and Wales.

Bishops' Transcripts and Marriage Licences, Bonds and
Allegations: A Guide to their Location and Indexes.
Third edition, updated 1992. 40 pp.
These records, which often supplement parish registers, vary in their extent and finding aids and are not always in the most obvious record offices. Covering England and Wales, Ireland and the Isle of Man, this is an essential reference work.

The Hearth Tax, Other Later Stuart Tax Lists
and the Association Oath Rolls.
Second edition, forthcoming, 1996.
The Hearth Tax, for which records survive between 1662 and 1674, is the best known of taxation sources for local and family historians, listing the inhabitants of most houses in England and Wales, by county and parish. This booklet at last provides a clear and simple Guide to the lists that survive in the P.R.O. and elsewhere, with their dates, condition and any published transcripts. Similar records for Scotland and Ireland are listed. Also included are an assortment of subsidy rolls, poll tax lists and the 'Marriage Tax' of the late 1690's (where they survive, of very comprehensive interest). Additionally references are given for the 1695/6 Association Oath Rolls, for England and Wales, Channel Islands and transatlantic colonies, signed by many of the adult male population.

With Judith Hunter

Victuallers' Licences: Records for Family and Local
Historians. 1994. 56 pp.
Of all widely held occupations, those who ran pubs. are the best recorded. For the 19th and 20th centuries there are voluminous records in local archives, and much in Quarter Sessions for the 18th century and earlier. National archives record the issue of wine and even occasional ale licences from 1552 on, naming the licensee, place and often the inn.

With Heather Creaton (Centre for Metropolitan History)

Lists of Londoners.
Updated 1993. 40 pp.
Finding aids for the whole Metropolis, with indexes in over 100 locations; complex sources and jurisdictions explained.

With Colin Rogers

Poor Law Union Records, 1834-1930.
1993, in four parts. 64-80 pp.
1. South East England and East Anglia (with Cliff Webb).
Beds., Bucks., Cambs., Essex, Herts., Hunts., Kent, London, Middlesex, Norfolk, Suffolk, Surrey, Sussex.
2. The Midlands and Northern England.
Ches., Cumbd., Dbys., Durh., Lancs., Leics., Lincs., N'hants., N'humb'd, Notts., Rutland, Staffs., Warw., Westm'd, Yorks.
3. South West England, The Marches and Wales.
Berks., Cornw., Devon, Dorset, Glos., Hants., Herefs., Oxon., Shrops., Som., Wilts., Worcs., Wales (incl. Monmouths.).
4. Gazetteer of England and Wales (with F.A. Youngs).
County by county, each PLU and its constituent places. PLU's formed the basis for Civil Registraton and Census districts.
Parts 1-3 list the records of the Unions created under the New Poor Law of 1834 to their abolition in 1930; some earlier 'Gilbert Union' and other 18th century incorporation records are also included. In many counties PLU records survive in vast quantities, whilst in others they have all but disappeared. Mostly in CRO's, some are found in smaller repositories. References to the PRO holdings in MH9 (staff registers) and MH 12 (correspondence) are also included. County sketch maps show PLU boundaries and county overlaps.
Entries under each PLU are divided into categories 'A', those likely to include names of paupers, and the general public (as in rating valuations), of most interest to family historians, and 'B', administrative records, of great importance to local and social historians.

Poll Books, c.1695-1872: A Directory to holdings in Great Britain. Third edition, 1994. 56 pp.
Until 1872, when the secret ballot was introduced, voting for Members of Parliament, by those entitled to vote, was a public matter, and a record of just how they did so was kept and frequently published. Before 1832, in England and Wales, only those with 40s. freeholds could vote (for County members) but these included many of relatively humble status. After 1832 the franchise was greatly widened, but poll books continued to be published. This Guide lists concisely the location of all known printed and manuscript poll books in public repositories, throughout England, Wales and Scotland.

Coroners' Records in England and Wales.
Updated 1992. 48 pp.
Another Guide to break new ground, the first ever listing of such records, revealing the spasmodic state of their survival and the continuing risk of their destruction. Colin Rogers provides a detailed and informative introduction to the records and a Glossary of terms, whilst Dr R.F. Hunnisett, the authority on medieval coroners' records, describes the holdings at the Public Record Office.

In Preparation:
School Admission Registers in England and Wales.

With Mervyn Medlycott and Dennis Mills

Land and Window Tax Assessments, 1690-1950.
1994. 52 pp.
The Land Tax Assessments list the owners, in England and Wales, of property worth 40s. or more in annual income, and often the occupying tenants as well. From c.1780 to 1832 they were used to establish voting qualifications and are usually found in Quarter Sessions records. For 1798 there is a nationwide assessment in the P.R.O. There are also many pre-1780 lists, and the tax and its records continued until the mid-20th century. LTA records for Scotland are also included.
Perhaps the most notorious of 18th century taxes, the Window Tax, has left few records, but those lists of taxpayers that are known to survive, identified in a recent nationwide survey, are incorporated in the Guide.

With Mervyn Medlycott

Militia Lists and Musters, 1757-1876.
Third edition, 1994. 48 pp.
The Militia Lists date from 1756 to around 1830 (with later regimental records). Parishes had to provide several militia-men for training, and all males between 16 and 45 (with variations) were liable for ballot. In some counties such lists survive, with occupations and, in the 19th century, ages, number of young children, infirmities etc. Even more useful are the Posse Comitatus of 1798 and the Levee en Masse of 1803, with similar wide-ranging lists of those liable for service or able to provide necessities such as horses and carts. These have been researched in detail for the first time and many previously unknown listings discovered, important additions to the number of quasi-census lists pre-dating the official records.

Local Census Listings, 1522-1930:
Holdings in the British Isles.
Second edition, 1994. 52 pp.
Quasi-censuses pre-dating the decennial national census records survive in unexpected quantity. They include locally retained lists made for the 1801-1831 censuses; and many others in earlier centuries. For the first time these have been comprehensively listed.

With Alan Dell

Tudor and Stuart Muster Rolls,
Updated 1991. 40 pp.
The records of 'Dad's Army' in the 16th and 17th century Muster Rolls, mainly in the Public Record Office in a variety of classes, have been examined and listed. They often include all able-bodied men in the parish.

The Protestation Returns 1641-42 and other listings.
1995. 84 pp.
As well as the Protestation, this includes the Collection in Aid of Distressed Protestants in Ireland, for both naming every place for which returns are known, and lists the Subsidies and 1642 Assessment.

[Transcribed by permission, Nov. 1995, Brian Randell]

The on-line parish clerks projects provide a focus for the transcription of historical records at parish level. There are projects for the following counties:

• Cornwall
• Devon
• Dorset
• Hampshire
• Lancashire
• Sussex
• Warwickshire
• Wiltshire

1. "News from the Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure: Automatic record linking for family recognition," Local Population Studies, vol. 40, pp.10-16, 1988.
   A summary account of the work of the Centre. States that they can now perform fully-automatic family reconstitution. "We have tested the record-linking algorithms extensively against manual reconstructions, and we have found that they provide comparable, or superior results in a fraction of the time taken to link the records by hand.." Provides a brief but useful narrative description of the techniques, but no references to publications giving detailed accounts of the techniques.
    
2. P. Adman, S.W. Baskerville and K.F. Beedham, "Computer-Assisted Record Linkage: or How Best to Optimize Links Without Generating Errors," History and Computing, vol. 4, no. 1, pp.2-15, 1994.
   "Record linkage is arguably a more complex process than most of its practitioners realize. Once a historian decides to settle for a subset of the potential links that can be made between two sets of nominal records s/he is already involved in the process of sampling. Fine, if that is relevant to the enquiry at hand: but if the objective is to achieve the maximum number of 'true' links, then accurate judgement becomes paramount. The key assumption underlying this paper is that 'judgement' is the function of the historian, not the computer. It is our belief that no systematic algorithm, however sophisticated, can perform this task as well as can an experienced team of researchers equipped with an appropriate set of software tools. In this paper we develop this line of reasoning in the context of our work on early eighteenth-century elections, and describe the functions of a software package known as CARL - Computer-Assisted Record Linkage."
    
3. R. Barker, "Reconstituting the Family," Genealogists' Magazine, vol. 21, no. 9,1985.
   Based on a talk given at the Society of Genealogists. Gives a fairly full account of manual techniques for performing family reconstitution; in describing the work of the Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structures mentions use of a computer only in connection with the analysis of the results of such a manual reconstitution. Then describes how genealogists could use essentially the same manual system of coloured record slips to analyze all the data they collect on surnames of interest, arguing: "This systematic way of attacking genealogy leaves much less margin for error, in my view. You cancel out many births by means of infant mortality - and know you've done so. You can slot births in because you recognise the pattern of birth interval. A five-year gap which should contain a baby may be filled from another parish. You can keep your finger on the variations of surname. There is, however, one other important advantage. Genealogy is a very self-indulgent form of research. It benefits, in the last instance, no-one but yourself, because no-one sees it. . . Don't stop being genealogists. Become *responsible* genealogists. Become family historians. If you use the Cambridge system, then you are not only helping yourself, you are making a useful contribution to historical research. Write-up your findings; deposit your slips in the record Office for others to borrow. Let the Record Office microfilm your reconstitutions. . ." (An editorial note refers to the Local Population Studies Society, formed by the Cambridge Group, as a source of further information.)
    
4. G. Bouchard, "The Processing of Ambiguous Links in Computerised Family Reconstructions," Historical Methods, vol. 19, no. 1, pp.9-19, 1986.
   Follows on from Bouchard (1980), and gives a detailed account of the methods used. Starts by pointing out the (often minimized) problem of deciding which records are candidates for matching, stating that in fact this, and hence the whole matching procedure should depend on the characteristics of the data being matched. States that in this case the data being used (Saguenay registers for 1842-1951) was of sufficiently high quality to use nonprobabilistic methods of record matching to achieve progressive linking, starting with the most secure situations (involving couples) and dealing later with clusters. "During the operations, the accumulation of information in the family records allows more and more difficult decisions to be made: thus each step is based on the preceding one . . . from one step to another, the algorithms for matching and decision making are modified according to the nature and quantity of the information available in the family records and the complexity of the situations to be dealt with."
    
5. G. Bouchard, "Current Issues and New Prospects for Computerized Record Linkage in the Provnce of Quebec," Historical Methods, vol. 25, no. 2, pp.67-73, 1992.
   "Most of this article focuses on [work on a database of 665,000 baptism, marriage and death records for the period 1838-1971 in the Saguenay region of Quebec] in order to single out a few basic theoretical and methodological issues relating to automated record linkage. Some major lessons must be learned from our own accomplishments (and failures) and from the varying fates of the various well-known, large-scale automated record-linkage projects set up in the 1970s in the fields of history, demography and genetics. One of these lessons has to do with the close relationship between the nature and the quality of the data, the research goals, and the linkage strategies. The diversity of the pioneer projects has provided ample evidence of (1) the need to devise linkage systems consistent with the purposes of the research and the capacity of the data to support them; (2) the consequent contradiction that may arise between some ideal accuracy and efficiency levels; and (3) the difficult choice that has to be made in such circumstances."
    
6. G. Bouchard and C. Pouyez, "Name Variations and Computerised Record Linkage," Historical Methods, vol. 13, pp.119-125, 1980.
   An excellent account of some of the techniques developed, in connection with a large-scale parish register and census data linking project in Quebec, for matching data concerning couples (rather than individuals). Five different types of name variation are described: spelling variations, phonetic variations, double-names, double first names, and alternate first names, with details given on the techniques used for dealing with first two of these. The first was handled by a specially created scheme of phonetic encoding for the French language, containing 64 rules - the article points out that soundex is not really a phonetic encoding scheme, but rather just a crude sorting device. The second type was handled by a technique based mainly on Guth's scheme for assessing the extent to which two words contain the same letters in the same order. Another aspect of the scheme is that it builds up a dictionary of equivalent names, using separate criteria for isolated names, and names in the context of all the name data available for a couple. On one test, involving 2,000 records, the scheme suceeded in finding 98.5% of the possible links, whereas only two thirds of the possible links could be found if one tested simply for name identicality.
    
7. C. Bourlet and J.-L. Minel. "A Declarative System for Setting Up a Prosoprographical Database," in History and Computing, ed. P. Denley and D. Hopkin, pp.186-191, Manchester Univ. Press, 1987.
   Brief description of a 70,000 item database of data from13th century French tax registers, and the use of a Prolog-based scheme for determining whether items refer to the same individual.
    
8. J. Carvalho. "Expert Systems and Community Reconstruction Studies," in History and Computing, II, ed. P. Denley, S. Fogelvik and C. Harvey, pp.97-102, Manchester Univ. Press, 1989.
   Brief description of a small-scale project that is to use a database, and a set of Prolog modules for record linking, life-story reconstruction, genealogical analysis and network reconstruction.
    
9. P.G. Cook, "Is Your John Cooke my John Cooke: introducing the "C-Vector" for finding common ancestors among databases.," Genealogical Computing, vol. 10, no. 1, pp.37-38, 1990.
   A heuristic for matching individuals in two lineage-linked databases, based on so-called C-vectors. Each vector corresponds to a separate individual, and lists in sequence the birth years of the individual, his/her parents and his/her grandparents, and the individual's sex, and name. (The scheme involves finding pairs of C-vectors which match on three or more known dates.)
    
10. P. Cooley, "Biographs for 19th Century Family Records," Computers in Genealogy, vol. 4, no. 3, pp.104-111, 1991.
    Shows how a biograph ("a potted life story on one individual", generated automatically from a PAF file) can be used together with some simple heuristics, to predict census returns, survivors, and electors, for checking against the actual lists.
     
11. P. Cooley, "Generation and Usage of Machine-Readable files from the GRO Indexes," Computers in Genealogy, vol. 4, no. 5, pp.190-199, 1992.
    Describes some techniques that have been developed for automatic enhancement of the output obtained from using a scanner to scan St. Catherine's House indexes, and describes the sort of test (making use of names and dates) that could be used to check whether two registrations refer to the same individual.
     
12. C. Davey. Reconstructing Local Population History: the Hatfield and Bobbingworth districts of Essex, 1550-1880, Cambridge Ph.D., 1990.
     
13. C. Davey and A.S. Jarvis, "Microcomputers for Microhistory: a database approach to the reconstruction of small English populations," History and Computing, vol. 2, no. 3, pp.187-193, 1990.
    Describes a scheme, based on the use of a relational database, for assisting local amateur historians to perform family reconstitutions. Baptisms, Marriages and Burials are kept in three base tables. "For every marriage, or implied marriage, all associated baptisms, burials and remarriages are found. Links between entities are made by matching the character strings that represent names. In addition, certain logical, biological and social conventions [Wrigley, 1966] are observed which limit the number of possible links to only probable links." Possible links are kept in separate tables. Uses Soundex, plus a list of special cases, for matching names. The user is then provided on request with all the relevant information on screen in order that he/she can perform resolution of competing links manually.
     
14. G. De Brou and M. Olsen, "The Guth Algorithm and the Nominal Record Linkage of Multi-Ethnic Populations," Historical Methods, vol. 19, pp.20-24, 1986.
    Discussion of experiments comparing the letter-by-letter comparative Guth surname matching algorithm (Guth 1976) against language-specific surname matching algorithms, as Soundex, Henry and FONEM. "Although relatively succesful for the particular projects for which they were designed, each language-specific system suffers from a major drawback: Its effective application is limited to the language for which it was originally created. . . . [Guth's] algorithm does not depend on recognition of phonetic similarity . . . Our study suggests that Guth is correct to claim that her algorithm has an important advantage over other systems: It is able to identify variant spellings through the position of letters in names. Because of this, the Guth algorithm, unlike the language-specific programs, is well-suited to the linking of a mult-ethnic population. The algorithm, however, is not perfect. It can produce incorrect matches between surnames that bear little resemblance to one another. This problem becomes particularly acute when comparing short names, where one or two incorrect vowels can produce an incorrect match. One way of overcoming this would be to include a new function that would assign a level of 'confidence' in the link according to the number of letters that occur in the same positions of the names being compared."
     
15. G.J.A. Guth, "Surname Spellings and Computerized Record Linkage," Historical Methods Newsletter, vol. 10, pp.10-19, 1976.
    Provides a full description of a surname matching ("name-recognition") algorithm that takes account of letter ordering, rather than being phonetic in character, and its use in a project to link various sets of early 18th century Norwich records: pollbooks,land tax assessments, window-tax assessments and registers of freemen. Details are given of how linking was performed first of all within individual sets of data, then taking pairs of sets of data at a time. "The limited number of identifiers available in the Norwich data did not justify establishing an elaborate weighting scheme for making links automatically. However some percent of the 'true links' were formed by the program, enabling the historian to select the remaining links clerically."
     
16. J. Hitchon, "Russell Soundex Code: a BBC Basic program," Computers in Genealogy, vol. 1, no. 5, pp.122-123, 1983.
     
17. C.J. Jardine and A.D.J. MacFarlane. "Computer Input of Historical Records for Multi-Source Record Linkage," in Proc. 7th Int. Economic History Conf., pp.71-8, Edinburgh 2, 1978.
    A fascinating account of the means by which completely transcribed documents were marked up in order to make the individuals, property, etc., and the relationships that they refer to evident, ready for computer input.
     
18. S. King, "Record Linkage in a Protoindustrial Community," History and Computing, vol. 4, no. 1, pp.27-33, 1994.
     
19. A. Macfarlane, S. Harrison and C. Jardine. Reconstructing Historical Communities, Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1977, 222 p. ISBN 0 521 21796 2
    This fascinating book describes the development and use of a sophisticated manual technique for creating a set of inter-related indexes to data obtained from a variety of documents in order to perform a "total reconstitution" of a given small community. The technique is illustrated mainly by reference to a fourteen-year long study of the history of the villages of Earls Colne in Essex, and Kirby Lonsdale in Cumbria, covering the period 1500-1750. The twelve document types dealt with in detail are: Anglican parish registers, manorial rentals, court baron land transfers, frankpledge listings, court leek cases, church court cases, quarter sessions cases, assize depositions, hearth tax records, wills, probate inventories, and population listings. For each of these document types, details of the indexing techniques used are described. In the case of Earls Colne, whose population was about 1200, the parish registers alone resulted in about 30,000 index cards, and the total for the twelve sets of records was nearly 140,000 cards. The analyses that the integrated set of indexes make feasible are very impressive. Far more complete family reconstructions can be produced than would be possible using just the parish register data. (One example shows a family tree which includes 25 marriages only four of which could be traced from parish register entries alone.) Similarly, extremely detailed historical accounts of the ownership and land and property are made feasible. (For Earls Colne it is "possible to know who owned every one of the approximately 650 separate parcels of property, land or housing, at any point in the last four hundred years.") Moreover, much can be learnt about the accuracy and the completeness of the data contained in the various types of document, and indeed about what some of the documents really mean, so that the author claims that one can learn far more about a typical English community during the period covered, both on an individual basis, and as a whole, than had hitherto been thought possible. The final chapter, incidentally, contains a careful analysis of how the manual techniques described could be aided by computer processing (albeit written in terms of then-current large mainframe computers). The task of doing a complete family reconstitution project manually for a village of 1000 inhabitants over a period of 300 years, based solely on parish registers, is estimated at 1,500 hours. A "total reconstitution" of the type described of such a community is estimated as needing 10 to 20 manyears if performed manually, or about 3 to 4 manyears if aided by computer.
     
20. F. Nault and B. Desjardins. "Computers and Historical Demography: the reconstitution of the early Québec population," in History and Computing, II, ed. P. Denley, S. Fogelvik and C. Harvey, pp.143-148, Manchester Univ. Press, 1989.
    Description of a very large family reconstruction project; it is stated that the method used, though "often incorrect at the individual level . . . yields results that are statistically valid."
     
21. H.B. Newcombe and J.M. Kennedy, "Record Linkage: making maximum use of the discriminating power of identifying information," Comm. ACM, vol. 5, pp.563-565, 1962.
     
22. H. Rhodri Davies, "Automated Record Linkage of Census Enumerator's Books and Registration Data: Obstacles, Challenges and Solutions," History and Computing, vol. 4, no. 1, pp.16-26, 1994.
    "In this paper the need for individual-level longitudinal data to study nineteenth century fertility and migration is highlighted and reasons why so little work has been carried out in this area using record linkage techniques are given. After hopefully alleviating the fears about data quality we discuss a computer package which can be used to speed up the linkage process."
     
23. R.S. Schofield, "The Standardisation of Names and the Automatic Linking of Historical Records," Annales de démographie historique, 1972.
     
24. K. Schürer. "Historical Demography, Social Structure and the Computer," in History and Computing, ed. P. Denley and D. Hopkin, pp.33-45, Manchester Univ. Press, 1987.
    A general overview of the work of the Cambridge Group on computer-based record linking of parish register records, and of successive census records. Mention is made of the use of Soundex, and of standardized coding (e.g. of occupations), in establishing links, and of the programs for finding logical inconsistencies in the data. (35 refs.)
     
25. K. Schürer, J. Oeppen and R. Scofield. "Theory and Methodology: an example from historical demography," in History and Computing, II, ed. P. Denley, S. Fogelvik and C. Harvey, pp.130-142, Manchester Univ. Press, 1989.
    Summary of the "Cambridge" approach to family reconstruction, which is described as based on two principles: "First an agnosticism about the number and identity of individuals whose life histories are represented by the events recorded in the registers leads us to form all possible links, and to take note of cases where records cannot be linked to gether. Second, a belief that in situations of uncertainty it is better to prefer links in which the information content of the records gives one the greatest confidence leads us to adopt a hierarchical, sequential approach to the resolution of ambguities." It argues that this approach to deleting competing links is to be preferred to that by Skolnick, of searching "for the combination of links with the lowest aggregate total confidence score that would need to be deleted to resolve the network . . . [because] there can be a very large number of possible combinations of links that could be deleted."
     
26. M. Skolnick. "The Resolution of Ambiguities in Record Linkage," in Identifying People in the Past, ed. E. A. Wrigley, pp.102-127, London, Edward Arnold, 1973.
    The method described is based on the estimation of maximum likelihoods, and applied to the linking of records from medieval Italian parish registers, for purposes of genetic research. "The method [uses] the decision making techniques developed in artificial intelligence projects . . . The artificial intelligence approach consists of building a family of related solutions, developing a method of keeping the family of reasonable solutions small, and selecting the best solution with minimum effort and maximum accuracy. . . The frequencies of the nominal identifiers in the records to be linked forms the basis of the likelihoods. If one has the distribution of each forename and surname by parish, by time period and by type of record, one can calculate the probability that a link between two records will be made by chance. Thus if a record has much missing data, and the only data which is compatible consists of common names, the probability of a match, made at random, being compatible is quite large. If there are many identifiers, and some of them are rare names, the probability of a compatible match occurring is quite low, and can be estimated. . . Likelihoods are also computed from age error distributions which are formed from records whose links are most certain. . . A heuristic computer program, LINK, is being developed for the resolution of ambiguities in record linking. It is being constructed in a manner similar to the heuristic DENDRAL computer program."
     
27. Squire, "Expert Systems in Genealogy," Computer in Genealogy, vol. 3, no. 8,1990.
    Briefly argues the potential utility of expert systems for various genealogical applications.
     
28. N.C. Stevenson. Genealogical Evidence; a guide to the standard of proof relating to pedigrees, ancestry, heirship and family history, Laguna Hills CA, Aegean Park Press, 1979, 233 p.
    An excellent account by a lawyer and genealogist of the standards of proof that should be sought in establishing an individual's ancestry, whether for producing a documented genealogy, or for legal purposes. Though aimed at an American readership, and dealing mainly with American records and laws, it is well worthy of study by genealogists in other countries, particularly the UK given the links (both of emigration, and of legal heritage) between Britain and the USA. Quotes from many legal judgements, but nevertheless is very readable. Provides careful and thought-provoking analyses of the strengths and weaknesses, as genealogical evidence, of various types of official records (vital, court, land and census records), church and family bible records, newspaper files, monuments, etc., and published and private genealogies and genealogical directories - a number of which are roundly criticised, Burke's Peerage in particular. To quote from the introduction: " ... there are some who believe that the rules of evidence in our legal system and in effect in our court proceedings are too technical and not completely practical for genealogical, historical and biographical research. This belief is not valid." This is perhaps shown best by the excellent chapter on "Rules of Evidence Applied to Genealogy". The book is thus a great antidote to the motherhood statements about the need for careful research found in many guides to genealogy.
     
29. E.R. Swart, "A Computer Simulation of the Ineradicable Uncertainty in Genealogical Research," Family History, no. 118, pp.389-396, 1989.
     
30. M. Thaller. "Methods and Techniques of Historical Computation," in History and Computing, ed. P. Denley and D. Hopkin, pp.147-156, Manchester Univ. Press, 1987.
    A general discussion of desirable characteristics and capabilities of database systems used for various types of "historical computation", including record linkage.
     
31. J.E. Vetter, J.R. Gonzalez and M.P. Gutman, "Computer-Assisted Record Linkage Using a Relational Database System," History and Computing, vol. 4, no. 1, pp.34-51, 1994.
    "Our intent is not to present a theoretically or methodologically correct approach to nominal record linkage, but to describe the evolution of a semi-automated linkage technique particularly suited to the needs and resources of a university demographic research setting."
     
32. J.D. Willigan and K.A. Lynch. Sources and Methods of Historical Demography, New York, Academic Press, 1982.
    A scholarly treatise on the whole subject of historical demography, but containing only a brief section on techniques for family reconstruction. This describes, as an example method, that of the Montreal group.
     
33. I. Winchester, "The Linkage of Historical Records by Man and Computer: techniques and problems," Journal of Interdisciplinary History, vol. 1, pp.107-124, 1970.
     
34. I. Winchester. "A Brief Survey of the Algorithmic, Mathematical and Philosophical Literature relevant to historical record linkage," in Identifying People in the Past, ed. E. A. Wrigley, pp.128-154, London, Edward Arnold, 1973.
    "This survey consists of a discussion of the chief problems of record linkage which are relevant to historical data, followed by a select bibliography [of 54 items]. The discussion takes the form of a critical survey of literature about record linkage." An excellent account.
     
35. E.A. Wrigley, (Ed.). Family Reconstruction, An Introduction to English Historical Demography. 1966, 96-159 p.
    Contains a very detailed account of a manual technique, using Family Reconstitution Forms (FRF), for organizing parish register record linking pioneered by L. Henry. (The method to be used for resolving ambiguities is described in less detail, and would appear to be fairly subjective.)
     
36. E.A. Wrigley, (Ed.). Identifying People in the Past, London, Edward Arnold, 1973, 159 p.
    From the introduction: "In recent years there has been a spate of historical studies involving nominal record linkage on a scale which requires the linkage rules to be set out formally and in detail. Most of these studies have been based on parish registers (or a comparable source of genealogical information), or on nineteenth century census schedules. And at the same time there has been a marked tendency to abandon manual methods in favour of computers. The six chapters which follow represent an attempt to describe some of the methods currently in use, and to discuss the problems and opportunities of record linkage work."
     
37. E.A. Wrigley and R.S. Schofield. "Nominal Record Linkage by Computer and the Logic of Family Reconstruction," in Identifying People in the Past, ed. E. A. Wrigley, pp.64-101, London, Edward Arnold, 1973.
    Detailed account of the record linkage techniques used by the Cambridge group, including a section on Matchscoring and an Appendix on Name Spelling. The section on demographic constraints upon record linkage gives the following rules/heuristics:
    
    "1. Age at death is never greater than 100 years, unless age information in the burial record overrides this rule.
    
    2. At the birth of a child the mother is never less than 15 or more than 50 years old, nor the father less than 15 or more than 75.
    
    3. No two successive birth events to the same mother occur in less than 10 months and no three successive birth events in less than 22 months.
    
    4. The interval between the end of a marriage and the remarriage of the surviving spouse must be less than 20 years.
    
    5. First marriages (for both sexes) occur only when the bride or the groom is above 15 years of age and less than 50, unless age information in the marriage record overrides the rule.
    
    6. All brides and grooms are less than 75 years of age at marriage unless age information in the marriage record overrides the rule.
    
    7. Whenever an age is given in either one or both of the records involved in a possiible link the difference between the dates of the two records must be compatible with the age information given.
    
    8. Where occupations are stated in both records involved in a possible link and they mismatch in a manner which is thought to be incompatible even with the most extreme assumptions about lifetime occupational mobility, no link is made (for example labourer/vicar).
    
    9. In addition to the requirement that the names of the principal on two records should agree before a link is made, there must also be no disagreement about the names of any relatives named in both records (for example, if the names of both parents are recorded at the baptism of a child, and again when he is buried, they must not disagree if a BAP-BUR link is to be made)."
     
38. E.A. Wrigley and R.S. Schofield, (Ed.). The Population History of England, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989.

In spite of the wealth of introductory and reference material available online, genealogy books by acknowledged experts remain important sources of information on genealogical records and advice on how to make the most of them.

The general principles and methods of genealogical research do not change, but bear in mind that the older the book, the less likely it is to have correct current information about what is and is not available online, and the location, organization and facilities of local record offices also change over time.

Books which are available in electronic editions have been indicated by an asterisk.

General Guides

Colwell, Stella. Tracing Your Family History, 3rd revised edition, Teach Yourself. (2007), 308 pp. ISBN-13: 978-0340928301.

An excellent introductory text-book by the Family and Local History Specialist Reader Adviser at the Public Record Office, Kew, in the long-established and well-respected "Teach Yourself" series. It is in fact the second edition of a book that was first published in 1997, and has been extensively revised in order to include good up to date coverage of Internet resources. It is, for an introductory text, very comprehensive - its set of chapters comprises:- Getting Started; Getting Help; Sorting out the Facts; Starting Out Your Research: Births, Marriages and Deaths; Births, Marriages and Deaths in the Channel Islands, Isle of Man, Scotland and Ireland; Births, Marriages and Deaths at Sea and Abroad; Searching the Census; Other Name Lists; Finding Your Way to the Records; Searching Parish Registers; The Nonconformists; Parish Registers in the Rest of the British Isles, Ireland and the United States of America; Wills and Other Probate Records; Probate Records elsewhere in the British Isles, Ireland and the United States of America; Fred Karno and his Army: Case Studies; Writing it all up.

Herber, M.D. Ancestral Trails: The Complete Guide to British Genealogy and Family History, 2nd edition, Sutton Publishing in assoc. with The Society of Genealogists (2005), 873 pp. ISBN 0-7509-4198-7.

"This new edition takes account the many changes in the field since Ancestral Trails was first published in 1997, and is the most comprehensive and up to date guide to tracing British ancestry. It guides the researcher through the substantial British archives with a detailed view of the records and published sources available. Research in Scotland, Wales, Ireland, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands is also covered, as are the latest developments in information technology applications on CD and through the internet." - see GENUKI's review of this edition, supplementing its detailed review of the first edition.

Hey, David. The Oxford Guide to Family History, Oxford, O.U.P. (2002), 246 pp. ISBN 0192803131.

"The Oxford Guide to Family History is not just another guide to the mechanics of constructing a family tree. David Hey shows how to go beyond this and discover the reality of the lives of your ancestors. Who were they? Where did they live? How did they earn their living? Family history is a subject with broad concerns, including the origin, spread and sometimes decline and disappearance of families. The work of social historians is therefore of great interest, whether dealing with the size of families, the ages at which people married, or the mobility of the population. David Hey highlights those aspects of social history which are most relevant to family history research and suggests lines of enquiry that may be followed with profit and enjoyment by family historians - the past and present distribution of surnames, the stability of certain families, and the mobility of others. Practical guidance is given on the basics of research - how to get started, where to find records - and there are many illustrations both in colour and black and white, showing family groups, houses, monuments, archive records, and family trees. In making the fruits of the latest scholarship available to the family historian, David Hey provides an authoritative introduction to the subject as well as a stimulating guide for those wishing to proceed to a more advanced stage of research."

Osborn, Helen, Genealogy: Essential Research Methods, London, Robert Hale (2012), 208 pp. ISBN-13: 978-0709091974. *2015

From the publisher: "This book is the ideal companion for anybody researching their family tree. It provides advice and inspiration on methods and problem-solving and helps the amateur family historian understand what successful professionals do to get results, and why we should copy them. Over ten chapters, it examines the various themes that affect the success or failure of all genealogy research. This begins with an overview of common challenges genealogists encounter and continues with an examination of how to both search effectively and find the right documentary sources. Using examples from her own family history as well as client work, teacher and professional genealogist Helen Osborn demonstrates how to get the most from documents, analyze problems and build research plans. These subjects lead on to recording results, how to ensure relationships are correctly proved, organizing information and presenting your findings. Although the book deals mainly with research in England and Wales, the skills taught are easily transferable to research in other countries."

Waddell, Dan, Who Do You Think You Are?: The Genealogy Handbook, BBC Books (2018), 192 pp., ISBN-13: 978-1785943423 *

"This official Who Do You Think You Are? jargon-free guide equips you with the tools you need to start your own journey into your family's past, and get relevant results fast. There is information on everything from how to order birth certificates and track down immigration records, to drilling down on specifics such as finding out if your army officer great-great grandfather w-as ever awarded a military medal." (Publisher)

Reference Works

Hey, David, (Ed.). The Oxford Companion to Family and Local History, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press (2010), 704 pp. ISBN-13: 978-0199532971.*

"The Oxford Companion to Family and Local History is the most comprehensive and authoritative guide available to all things associated with the family and local history of the British Isles. It provides practical and contextual information for anyone enquiring into their English, Irish, Scottish, or Welsh origins and for anyone working in genealogical research, or the social history of the British Isles. This fully revised and updated edition contains over 2,000 entries from adoption to World War records. There are recommended web links for many entries. This edition advises how to research your family tree using the internet and details the full range of online resources available." (Publisher)

If you have a UK public library card, you can consult the full text online free of charge at the Oxford Reference site.

Rogers, Colin D. The Family Tree Detective. A manual for tracing your ancestors in England and Wales, 4th revised edition, Manchester Univ. Press (2008), 320 pp. ISBN-13: 978-0719071263.

An excellent detailed guide to basic UK genealogy. From the publisher's blurb: "A problem-solving manual rather than a simple "how-to" guide. The Family Tree Detective explains what to do when the usual methods fail and provides invaluable assistance for those without access to London's vast resources of genealogical information.".

Few, Janet. The Family Historian's Enquire Within, 6th revised edition, The Family History Partnership (2014), 296 pp. ISBN-13: 978-1906280116.

An excellent general reference book for UK and Irish research. The publisher's blurb claims, without too much hyperbole: "Arranged alphabetically, it contains bibliographies, addresses, definitions, explanations, dates and maps on every conceivable topic the family historian may need".

Genealogical Records

Annal, David & Collins, Audrey, Birth, Marriage and Death Records: A Guide for Family Historians, Pen & Sword Books (2012), 224 pp. ISBN-13: 978-1848845725. *

"An introductory guide for the uninitiated, Dave Annal and Audrey Collins' introduction to the holy trinity of family history resources takes BMDs by their horns, explaining and elucidating how documentary evidence of these three junctures in our ancestors' life can be used in our pursuits of genealogical knowledge." (Your Family History)

Christian, Peter & Annal, David, Census: The Family Historian s Guide, 2nd edition, Bloomsbury (2014), 368 pp., ISBN-13: 978-1472902931*

"This practical guide to using censuses in your family research shows you how to interpret intricate details of your ancestors lives, but also explores how and why information was gathered on names, addresses, family relationships and occupations" (Publisher)

National Records of Scotland, Tracing Your Scottish Ancestors, 7th edition, Birlinn, 2020, 272 pp., ISBN-13 : 978-1780276335

The official guide to Scottish records "details all the latest internet developments, including a chapter on family history on the web. It also points to more traditional resources, explaining step by step how to research records of births, marriages and wills." (Publisher)

Grenham, John, Tracing Your Irish Ancestors, 5th edition, Gill Books (2019), 688 pp., ISBN-13: 978-0717174652.*

"When a non-fiction book reaches its 5th edition, it's fair to assume the title has achieved a classic status among its intended audience... tried and trusted as it is delivering an understanding of how Irish records work and how and where to find them. " Claire Santry, Irish Genealogy News

Specific Topics

The Society of Genealogists has an extensive series of guides (currently 30) in the My Ancestor series. Each guide provides an introduction to family history research for a particular occupation (e.g. coalminer, clergyman), social status (e.g. bastard, gentleman), religion (e.g. congregationalist), or localty (e.g. West Indies, Scotland).

Pen & Sword has over 100 guides, covering many different aspects.of family history: "There are volumes on the most important types of records for family historians and guides to the family history of the British regions and principal cities. Also included are introductions to the armed services and the world wars, to types of work, and to the major industries and professions" (Publisher).

Internet-Related Guides

Christian, Peter. The Genealogist's Internet, 5th revised edition, Bloomsbury (2012), 448 pp. ISBN-13: 978-1408159576. *

"This much-expanded second edition of the best-selling The Genealogist's Internet contains everything you need to know about family history on the Web. It describes: on-line records and web sites of national and local archives in the UK; on-line historical and geographical resources of interest to family historians; services provided by genealogical organisations via the internet; how to use mailing lists and newsgroups to find advice and others who share your interests; how to locate genealogical information on-line; how to publish your own family history on the Web"

Hawgood, David. Genuki: UK and Ireland Genealogy on the Internet 2000, Birmingham, Federation of Family History Societies (2000) 48 pp. ISBN: 1860061117.

"This is a book about GENUKI, an information service on the Internet for United Kingdom and Ireland Genealogy. It shows what type of information is in GENUKI, and how to find it. Regard GENUKI as the first place to look for U.K. and Ireland genealogy. It contains a great deal of information in its own web pages, including some transcripts and indexes, and has thousands of links to other information on the Internet. This book is being published in two forms, on-line and as a printed book. They have the same text and examples (with minor modifications for the different formats)." - associated website

Surname lists provide details of surnames being researched by individual family historians, usually specifying a particular period and county, and often a locality within the county. In most cases, an email address is provided for contact. There is either an online form or an email address for new submissions.

Lists with National Coverage

UK Surnames

UK Surnames (archived copy) has lists for:

• All English counties, plus London, Manchester and the Isle of Wight
• All Scottish counties, plus the city of Glasgow. (Kinross-shire is not listed separately, but entries for the county are listed under Perth)
• 15 Irish counties:
  Armagh, Antrim, Clare, Cork, Down, Dublin, Kildare, Laois, Limerick, Monaghan, Tipperary, Tyrone, Waterford, Wexford, Wicklow
• All Welsh counties
• Channel Islands and Isle of Man (listed under England).

County Lists

There are a number of lists devoted to individual counties. Note that a number of these lists are clearly no longer being updated and have not been for some time, but they may still have useful contacts.

• England
  • Kent (last updated 2005)
  • Middlesex
  • Norfolk (last updated 2014)
  • Oxfordshire
  • Norfolk - currently being rebuilt
  • Worcestershire (last updated 2004)
  • Yorkshire
• Ireland
  • Galway
  • Kilkenny
  • Leitrim & Roscommon
• Scotland
  • Banffshire (closed to new submissions since 1st Jan 2008)
  • Renfrewshire (latest submissions seem to 2002)
  • West Lothian (closed to new submissions since 1st Jan 2008)
• Wales
  • Welsh Ancestor List
• Channel Islands (last updated 2010)

Family History Society Lists

All family history societies maintain lists of members' interests. In many cases these lists are available online and should be accessible from the society's web site.

For links to the web sites of all family history societies relevant to those with ancestors in the British Isles, see the Family History and Genealogy Societies page.

Guild of One-Name Studies

The Guild of One-name Studies provides an online register of all the surnames (currently c. 8,800) being researched by its members.